Footnotes

1. Isaiah 1:1 tn Heb “The vision of Isaiah son of Amoz, which he saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, [and] Hezekiah, kings of Judah.” sn Isaiah’s prophetic career probably began in the final year of Uzziah’s reign (ca. 740   b.c.   , see Isa 6:1 ) and extended into the later years of Hezekiah’s reign, which ended in 686   b.c.  
2. Isaiah 1:2 sn The personified heavens and earth are summoned to God’s courtroom as witnesses against God’s covenant people. Long before this Moses warned the people that the heavens and earth would be watching their actions (see Deut 4:26 ;   30:19 ;   31:28 ;   32:1 ).
3. Isaiah 1:2 tn Or “sons” (NAB, NASB). sn “Father” and “son” occur as common terms in ancient Near Eastern treaties and covenants, delineating the suzerain and vassal as participants in the covenant relationship. The prophet uses these terms, the reference to heavens and earth as witnesses, and allusions to deuteronomic covenant curses ( 1:7-9 ,   19-20 ) to set his prophecy firmly against the backdrop of Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh.
4. Isaiah 1:2 sn The normal word pair for giving birth to and raising children is יָלַד ( yalad , “to give birth to”) and גָּדַל ( gadal , “to grow, raise”). The pair גָּדַל and רוּם ( rum , “to raise up”) probably occur here to highlight the fact that Yahweh made something important of Israel (cf. R. Mosis, TDOT 2:403).
5. Isaiah 1:2 sn Against the backdrop of Yahweh’s care for his chosen people, Israel’s rebellion represents abhorrent treachery. The conjunction prefixed to a nonverbal element highlights the sad contrast between Yahweh’s compassionate care for His people and Israel’s thankless rebellion.
6. Isaiah 1:2 sn To rebel carries the idea of “covenant treachery.” Although an act of פֶּשַׁע ( peshaʿ , “rebellion”) often signifies a breach of the law, the legal offense also represents a violation of an existing covenantal relationship (E. Carpenter and M. Grisanti, NIDOTTE 3:707).
7. Isaiah 1:3 tn Heb “and the donkey the feeding trough of its owner.” The verb in the first line does double duty in the parallelism.
8. Isaiah 1:3 tn Although both verbs have no object, the parallelism suggests that Israel fails to recognize the Lord as the one who provides for their needs. In both clauses, the placement of “Israel” and “my people” at the head of the clause focuses the reader’s attention on the rebellious nation (C. van der Merwe, J. Naudé, J. Kroeze, A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar , 346-47).
9. Isaiah 1:4 sn Having summoned the witnesses and announced the Lord’s accusation against Israel, Isaiah mourns the nation’s impending doom. The third person references to the Lord in the second half of the verse suggest that the quotation from the Lord (cf. vv. 2-3 ) has concluded.
10. Isaiah 1:4 tn Or “sons” (NASB). The prophet contrasts four terms of privilege—nation, people, offspring, children—with four terms that depict Israel’s sinful condition in Isaiah’s day—sinful, evil, wrong, wicked (see J. A. Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah , 43).
11. Isaiah 1:4 sn Holy One of Israel is one of Isaiah’s favorite divine titles for God. It pictures the Lord as the sovereign king who rules over his covenant people and exercises moral authority over them.
12. Isaiah 1:4 tn Heb “they are estranged backward.” The LXX omits this statement, which presents syntactical problems and seems to be outside the synonymous parallelistic structure of the verse.
13. Isaiah 1:5 sn In vv. 5-9 Isaiah addresses the battered nation ( 5-8 ) and speaks as their representative (9).
14. Isaiah 1:5 tn Heb “Why are you still beaten? [Why] do you continue rebellion?” The rhetorical questions express the prophet’s disbelief over Israel’s apparent masochism and obsession with sin. The interrogative construction in the first line does double duty in the parallelism. H. Wildberger ( Isaiah , 1:18) offers another alternative by translating the two statements with one question: “Why do you still wish to be struck that you persist in revolt?”
15. Isaiah 1:5 tn Heb “all the head is ill”; NRSV “the whole head is sick”; CEV “Your head is badly bruised.”
16. Isaiah 1:6 tn Heb “there is not in it health”; NAB “there is no sound spot.”
17. Isaiah 1:6 tn Heb “pressed out.”
18. Isaiah 1:6 tn Heb “softened” (so NASB, NRSV); NIV “soothed.”
19. Isaiah 1:6 sn This verse describes wounds like those one would receive in battle. These wounds are comprehensive and without remedy.
20. Isaiah 1:7 tn Heb “As for your land, before you foreigners are devouring it.”
21. Isaiah 1:7 tn Heb “and [there is] devastation like an overthrow by foreigners.” The comparative preposition כ ( kaf , “like, as”) has here the rhetorical nuance, “in every way like.” The point is that the land has all the earmarks of a destructive foreign invasion because that is what has indeed happened. One could paraphrase, “it is desolate as it can only be when foreigners destroy.” On this use of the preposition in general, see GKC 376 §118. x . Many also prefer to emend “foreigners” here to “Sodom,” though there is no external attestation for such a reading in the   mss   or ancient versions. Such an emendation finds support from the following context ( vv. 9-10 ) and usage of the preceding noun מַהְפֵּכָה ( mahpekhah , “overthrow”). In its five other uses, this noun is associated with the destruction of Sodom. If one accepts the emendation, then one might translate, “the devastation resembles the destruction of Sodom.”
22. Isaiah 1:8 tn Heb “daughter of Zion” (so KJV, NASB, NIV). The genitive is appositional, identifying precisely which daughter is in view. By picturing Zion as a daughter, the prophet emphasizes her helplessness and vulnerability before the enemy.
23. Isaiah 1:8 tn Heb “like a city besieged.” Unlike the preceding two comparisons, which are purely metaphorical, this third one identifies the reality of Israel’s condition. In this case the comparative preposition, as in v. 7b , has the force, “in every way like,” indicating that all the earmarks of a siege are visible because that is indeed what is taking place. The verb form in MT is Qal passive participle of נָצַר ( natsar , “guard”), but since this verb is not often used of a siege (see BDB 666 s.v. I נָצַר ), some prefer to repoint the form as a Niphal participle from II צוּר ( tsur , “besiege”). However, the latter is not attested elsewhere in the Niphal (see BDB 848 s.v. II צוּר ).
24. Isaiah 1:9 tn Traditionally, “the   Lord   of hosts.” The title pictures God as the sovereign king who has at his disposal a multitude of attendants, messengers, and warriors to do his bidding. In some contexts, like this one, the military dimension of his rulership is highlighted. In this case, the title pictures him as one who leads armies into battle against his enemies.
25. Isaiah 1:9 tc The translation assumes that כִּמְעָט ( kimʿat , “quickly,” literally, “like a little”) goes with what follows, contrary to the MT accents, which take it with what precedes. In this case, one could translate the preceding line, “If the   Lord   who commands armies had not left us a few survivors.” If כִּמְעָט goes with the preceding line (following the MT accents), this expression highlights the idea that there would only be a few survivors (H. Wildberger, Isaiah , 1:20; H. Zobel, TDOT 8:456). Israel would not be almost like Sodom but exactly like Sodom.
26. Isaiah 1:10 sn Building on the simile of v. 9 , the prophet sarcastically addresses the leaders and people of Jerusalem as if they were leaders and residents of ancient Sodom and Gomorrah. The sarcasm is appropriate, for if the judgment is comparable to Sodom’s, that must mean that the sin which prompted the judgment is comparable as well.
27. Isaiah 1:10 tn Heb “to the instruction of our God.” In this context, which is highly accusatory and threatening, תּוֹרָה ( torah , “law, instruction”) does not refer to mere teaching, but to corrective teaching and rebuke.
28. Isaiah 1:11 tn Heb “Why to me the multitude of your sacrifices?” The sarcastic rhetorical question suggests that their many sacrifices are of no importance to the Lord. This phrase answers the possible objection that an Israelite could raise in response to God’s indictment: “But we are offering the sacrifices you commanded!” sn In this section the Lord refutes a potential objection that his sinful people might offer in their defense. He has charged them with rebellion ( vv. 2-3 ), but they might respond that they have brought him many sacrifices. So he points out that he requires justice in society first and foremost, not empty ritual.
29. Isaiah 1:11 tn The verb שָׂבַע ( savaʿ , “be satisfied, full”) is often used of eating and/or drinking one’s fill, to have had fully enough and want no more. See BDB 959 s.v. שָׂבַע . In some cases it means to have had more than enough of something and to want to not have any more (cf. Prov 25:17 ). The word picture builds on the Near Eastern viewpoint of sacrifices as food for the deity. God essentially says, “enough of that already;” what he wants is not more of that.
30. Isaiah 1:11 sn In the chiastic structure of the verse, the verbs at the beginning and end highlight God’s displeasure, while the heaping up of references to animals, fat, and blood in the middle lines hints at why God wants no more of their sacrifices. They have, as it were, piled the food on his table and he needs no more.
31. Isaiah 1:12 tn Heb “When you come to appear before me, who requires this from your hand, trampling of my courtyards?” The rhetorical question sarcastically makes the point that God does not require this parade of livestock. The verb “trample” probably refers to the eager worshipers and their sacrificial animals walking around in the temple area.
32. Isaiah 1:13 tn Or “worthless” (NASB, NCV, CEV); KJV, ASV “vain.”
33. Isaiah 1:13 sn Notice some of the other practices that Yahweh regards as “detestable”: homosexuality ( Lev 18:22-30 ;   20:13 ), idolatry ( Deut 7:25 ;   13:15 ), human sacrifice ( Deut 12:31 ), eating ritually unclean animals ( Deut 14:3-8 ), sacrificing defective animals ( Deut 17:1 ), engaging in occult activities ( Deut 18:9-14 ), and practicing ritual prostitution ( 1 Kgs 14:23 ).
34. Isaiah 1:13 tn Heb “sin and assembly” (these two nouns probably represent a hendiadys). The point is that their attempts at worship are unacceptable to God because the people’s everyday actions in the socio-economic realm prove they have no genuine devotion to God (see vv. 16-17 ).
35. Isaiah 1:15 tn Heb “I close my eyes from you.”
36. Isaiah 1:15 sn This does not just refer to the blood of sacrificial animals, but also the blood, as it were, of their innocent victims. By depriving the poor and destitute of proper legal recourse and adequate access to the economic system, the oppressors have, for all intents and purposes, “killed” their victims.
37. Isaiah 1:16 sn Having demonstrated the people’s guilt, the Lord calls them to repentance, which will involve concrete action in the socio-economic realm, not mere emotion.
38. Isaiah 1:16 sn This phrase refers to Israel’s covenant treachery (cf. Deut 28:10 ;   Jer 4:4 ;   21:12 ;   23:2 ,   22 ;   25:5 ;   26:3 ;   44:22 ;   Hos 9:15 ;   Ps 28:4 ). In general, the noun מַעַלְלֵיכֶם ( maʿalleykhem ) can simply be a reference to deeds, whether good or bad. However, Isaiah always uses it with a negative connotation (cf. 3:8 ,   10 ).
39. Isaiah 1:17 tn The precise meaning of this line is uncertain. The translation assumes an emendation of חָמוֹץ ( khamots , “oppressor [?]”) to חָמוּץ ( khamuts , “oppressed”), a passive participle from II חָמַץ ( khamats , “oppress”; HALOT 329 s.v. II חמץ ) and takes the verb II אָשַׁר ( ʾashar ) in the sense of “make happy” (the delocutive Piel, meaning “call/pronounce happy,” is metonymic here, referring to actually effecting happiness). The parallelism favors this interpretation, for the next two lines speak of positive actions on behalf of the destitute. The other option is to retain the MT pointing and translate, “set right the oppressor,” but the nuance “set right” is not clearly attested elsewhere for the verb I אשׁר . This verb does appear as a participle in Isa 3:12 and 9:16 with the meaning “to lead or guide.” If it can mean to “lead” or “rebuke/redirect” in this verse, the prophet could be contrasting this appeal for societal reformation ( v. 17c ) with a command to reorder their personal lives ( v. 17a-b ). J. A. Motyer ( The Prophecy of Isaiah , 47) suggests that these three statements ( v. 17a-c ) provide “the contrast between the two ends of imperfect society, the oppressor and the needy, the one inflicting and the other suffering the hurt. Isaiah looks for a transformed society wherever it needs transforming.”
40. Isaiah 1:17 tn This word refers to a woman who has lost her husband, by death or divorce. The orphan and widow are often mentioned in the OT as epitomizing the helpless and impoverished who have been left without the necessities of life due to the loss of a family provider.
41. Isaiah 1:18 sn The Lord concludes his case against Israel by offering them the opportunity to be forgiven and by setting before them the alternatives of renewed blessing (as a reward for repentance) and final judgment (as punishment for persistence in sin).
42. Isaiah 1:18 tn Traditionally, “let us reason together,” but the context suggests a judicial nuance. The Lord is giving the nation its options for the future.
43. Isaiah 1:18 tn The imperfects must be translated as modal (indicating capability or possibility) to bring out the conditional nature of the offer. This purification will only occur if the people repent and change their ways.
44. Isaiah 1:18 tn The imperfects must be translated as modal (indicating capability or possibility) to bring out the conditional nature of the offer. This purification will only occur if the people repent and change their ways.
45. Isaiah 1:18 tn Heb “though your sins are like red, they will become white like snow; though they are red like scarlet, they will be like wool.” The point is not that the sins will be covered up, though still retained. The metaphorical language must be allowed some flexibility and should not be pressed into a rigid literalistic mold. The people’s sins will be removed and replaced by ethical purity. The sins that are now as obvious as the color red will be washed away and the ones who are sinful will be transformed.
46. Isaiah 1:19 tn Heb “listen”; KJV “obedient”; NASB “If you consent and obey.”
47. Isaiah 1:20 sn The wordplay in the Hebrew draws attention to the options. The people can obey, in which case they will “eat” v. 19 ( תֹּאכֵלוּ [ toʾkhelu ], Qal active participle of אָכַל ) God’s blessing, or they can disobey, in which case they will be devoured ( Heb “eaten,” תְּאֻכְּלוּ , [ t ^e ʾukk ^e lu ], Qal passive/Pual of אָכַל ) by God’s judgment.
48. Isaiah 1:20 tn Heb “for the mouth of the   Lord   has spoken.” The introductory כִּי ( ki ) may be asseverative (as reflected in the translation) or causal/explanatory, explaining why the option chosen by the people will become reality (it is guaranteed by the divine word).
49. Isaiah 1:21 tn Heb “How she has become a prostitute, the faithful city!” The exclamatory אֵיכָה ( ʾekhah , “how!”) is used several times as the beginning of a lament (see Lam 1:1 ;   2:1 ;   4:1-2 ). Unlike a number of other OT passages that link references to Israel’s harlotry to idolatry, Isaiah here makes the connection with social and moral violations.
50. Isaiah 1:21 tn Heb “filled with.”
51. Isaiah 1:21 tn Or “assassins.” This refers to the oppressive rich and/or their henchmen. R. Ortlund ( Whoredom , 78) posits that it serves as a synecdoche for all varieties of criminals, the worst being mentioned to imply all lesser ones. Since Isaiah often addressed his strongest rebuke to the rulers and leaders of Israel, he may have in mind the officials who bore the responsibility to uphold justice and righteousness.
52. Isaiah 1:22 tn The pronoun is feminine singular; personified Jerusalem (see v. 21 ) is addressed.
53. Isaiah 1:22 tn Or “dross.” The word refers to the scum or impurites floating on the top of melted metal.
54. Isaiah 1:22 sn The metaphors of silver becoming impure and beer being watered down picture the moral and ethical degeneration that had occurred in Jerusalem.
55. Isaiah 1:23 tn Or “stubborn”; CEV “have rejected me.”
56. Isaiah 1:23 tn Heb “and companions of” (so KJV, NASB); CEV “friends of crooks.”
57. Isaiah 1:23 tn Heb “pursue”; NIV “chase after gifts.”
58. Isaiah 1:23 sn Isaiah may have chosen the word for gifts ( שַׁלְמוֹנִים ,   shalmonim ; a hapax legomenon here), as a sarcastic pun on what these rulers should have been doing. Instead of attending to peace and wholeness ( שָׁלוֹם ,  shalom ), they sought after payoffs ( שַׁלְמוֹנִים ).
59. Isaiah 1:23 sn See the note at v. 17 .
60. Isaiah 1:23 sn The rich oppressors referred to in Isaiah and the other eighth-century prophets were not rich capitalists in the modern sense of the word. They were members of the royal military and judicial bureaucracies in Israel and Judah. As these bureaucracies grew, they acquired more and more land and gradually commandeered the economy and legal system. At various administrative levels bribery and graft become commonplace. The common people outside the urban administrative centers were vulnerable to exploitation in such a system, especially those, like widows and orphans, who had lost their family provider through death. Through confiscatory taxation, conscription, excessive interest rates, and other oppressive governmental measures and policies, they were gradually disenfranchised and lost their landed property, and with it, their rights as citizens. The socio-economic equilibrium envisioned in the law of Moses was radically disturbed.
61. Isaiah 1:24 tn Heb “the master, the   Lord   who commands armies [traditionally, “the   Lord   of hosts”].” On the title “the   Lord   of Heaven’s Armies,” see the note at v. 9 .
62. Isaiah 1:24 tn Or “the Mighty One of Israel.”
63. Isaiah 1:24 tn Heb “console myself” (i.e., by getting revenge); NRSV “pour out my wrath on.”
64. Isaiah 1:24 sn The Lord here identifies with the oppressed and comes as their defender and vindicator.
65. Isaiah 1:25 tn Heb “turn my hand against you.” The second person pronouns in vv. 25-26 are feminine singular. Personified Jerusalem is addressed. The idiom “turn the hand against” has the nuance of “strike with the hand, attack,” in Ps 81:15 HT ( 81:14 ET); Ezek 38:12 ;   Amos 1:8 ;   Zech 13:7 . In Jer 6:9 it is used of gleaning grapes.
66. Isaiah 1:25 tn Heb “I will purify your dross as [with] flux.” “Flux” refers here to minerals added to the metals in a furnace to prevent oxides from forming. For this interpretation of II בֹּר ( bor ), see HALOT 153 s.v. II בֹּר and 750 s.v. סִיג .
67. Isaiah 1:25 sn The metaphor comes from metallurgy; slag is the substance left over after the metallic ore has been refined.
68. Isaiah 1:26 tn Heb “I will restore your judges as in the beginning, and your counselors as in the beginning.” In this context, where social injustice and legal corruption are denounced (see v. 23 ), the “judges” are probably government officials responsible for making legal decisions, while the “advisers” are probably officials who helped the king establish policies. Both offices are also mentioned in 3:2 .
69. Isaiah 1:27 sn The third person reference to the Lord in v. 28 indicates that the prophet is again (see vv. 21-24a ) speaking. Since v. 27 is connected to v. 28 by a conjunction, it is likely that the prophet’s words begin with v. 27 .
70. Isaiah 1:27 tn Heb “Zion will be ransomed with justice.” Both cola in this verse end with similar terms: justice and righteousness (each preceded by the preposition בְּ [ b ^e ]). At issue is whether these virtues describe the means or result of the deliverance and whether they delineate God’s justice/righteousness or that of the covenant people. If the righteousness of Israelite returnees is in view, the point seems to be that the reestablishment of Zion as a center of justice (God’s people living in conformity with God’s demand for equity and justice) will deliver the city from its past humiliation and restore it to a place of prominence (see 2:2-4 ; cf. E. Kissane, Isaiah, 1:19). Most scholars conclude that “righteousness and “justice” refers to God alone (J. Ridderbos, Isaiah [BSC], 50; J. Watts, Isaiah [WBC], 1:25; E. J. Young, Isaiah [NICOT], 1:89; cf. NLT, TEV) or serves as a double reference to both divine and human justice and righteousness (J. A. Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah, 51; J. N. Oswalt, Isaiah [NICOT], 1:10; H. Wildberger, Isaiah , 1:72). If it refers to both sides of the coin, these terms highlight the objective divine work of redemption and the subjective human response of penitence (Motyer, 51).
71. Isaiah 1:27 tc The Hebrew text has, “her repentant ones/returnees with righteousness.” The form שָׁבֶיהָ ( shaveha , “her repentant ones”), as pointed in MT, is a masculine plural Qal participle from שׁוּב ( shuv , “return”). Used substantivally, it refers to the “returning (i.e., repentant) ones.” It is possible that the parallel line (with its allusion to being freed by a ransom payment) suggests that the form be repointed to שִׁבְיָהּ ( shivyah , “her captivity”), a reading that has support from the LXX. Some slightly emend the form to read וְשָׁבָה ( v ^e shavah , “and will return”). According to this view, the verb from the first line applies to the second line as well with the following translation as a result: “she will be released when fairness is restored.” Regardless, it makes best sense in the context to regard this as a reference to repentant Israelites returning to the land of promise. This understanding provides a better contrast with the rebels and sinners in 1:28 .
72. Isaiah 1:28 tn Heb “and [there will be] a shattering of rebels and sinners together.”
73. Isaiah 1:29 tc The Hebrew text (and the Qumran scroll 1QIsa ^a ) has the third person here, though a few Hebrew   mss   (and Targums) read the second person, which is certainly more consistent with the following context. The third person form is the more difficult reading and probably original. This disagreement in person has caused some to emend the first verb (third plural) to a second plural form (followed by most English translations). The BHS textual apparatus suggests that the second plural form be read even though there is only sparse textual evidence. LXX, Syriac, and the Vulgate change all the second person verbs in 1:29-31 to third person verbs. It is likely that the change to a second person form represents an attempt at syntactical harmonization (J. de Waard, Isaiah , 10). The abrupt change from third person to second person may have been intentional for rhetorical impact (GKC 462 §144. p ). The rapid change from exclamation (they did!) to reproach (you desired!) might be regarded as a rhetorical figure focusing attention on the addressees and their conditions (de Waard, 10; E. König, Stilistik, Rhetorik, Poetik , 239). This use of the third person could also be understood as an impersonal third person: “one will be ashamed” (de Waard, 10). In v. 29 the prophet continues his description of the sinners ( v. 28 ), but then suddenly makes a transition to direct address (switching from third to second person) in the middle of his sentence.
74. Isaiah 1:29 tn The second person pronouns in vv. 29-30 are masculine plural, indicating that the rebellious sinners ( v. 28 ) are addressed.
75. Isaiah 1:29 tn Or “gardens” (so KJV, NASB, NIV, NRSV); NAB “groves.”
76. Isaiah 1:30 tn Or “a garden” (so KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV).
77. Isaiah 1:31 tn Heb “will become” (so NASB, NIV).